Buddhism Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Buddhism - Research Paper Example The region of Buddhism unlike its predecessor Confucianism was able to directly address the concept of human suffering. This is what led to its wide appeal for the Chinese populace since they were undergoing a lot of suffering due to disease, displacement and scarcity of food. There was a lot of infighting between the broken state and the people of China at the time were dealing with a lot chaos and disunity. This was due to the warring states who were vying for supremacy after the fall of the Han dynasty. The Han dynasty had been so powerful and every subsequent and hopeful successor of the now divided state desired to have its glory and power. The religion of Buddhism is still very strong despite Chinas official shift to atheism. This is in spite of Communist attempts at stamping out religion when they took control of China in 1949. Buddhism continues to grow in China most especially after the economic reforms in late eighties. (PARKER, 1905) The Buddhism that took hold in China is Mahayana form of Buddhism .In it are which variations within Mahayana Buddhism such as Zen Buddhism, Pure Land Buddhism and Tibetan Buddhism (Lamaism).The Mahayana believes in the broader interpretations of Buddha’s teachings. This is in contrast to the more abstract philosophical nature present in Theravada Buddhism. The Mahayana Buddhists also belief in more contemporary Buddha’s like Amitabha. The Theravada Buddhists are against those beliefs so do not belief in the contemporary Buddha. The Buddhisms popularity also led to the quick conversion to Buddhism by later Chinese rulers (JETTY, 1914). These rulers made Buddhism into a state religion. The subsequent Sui and Tang Dynasties also all adopted Buddhism as their religion state religion. The foreign rulers of China were also not to be left out in their pursuit and practice of Buddhism such as the Yuan Dynasty and the Manchu’s dynasties. They did this in order to connec t with the Chinese populace and

What does it mean to study management critically Essay - 1

What does it mean to study management critically - Essay Example There are also various terms associated with management such as scientific management, human resource management, knowledge management among others. In organisations, it is mostly used to mean the relationship between those in the higher levels of the hierarchy or employer and employees. So why do we need to study management critically? I will argue that there is need to study management critically due the rise in globalisation which is rapidly changing the nature of work and management. Secondly, management and organisation as Minzberg (1971) asserts affects all aspects of our lives thus a need to understand what it entails and how it can be made effective leading to orderly society. Thirdly, the managers need to be self-critical in order to perform their roles successfully and this needs critical analysis of what their roles entail, how they are supposed to behave and relate with their environment. In the first section, I shall outline how the management concept has evolved over time and how it impacts on organizations and workforce. In achieving this, I shall draw on ideas from Bakan (2004); Linstead, Fulop and Liley (2009) and Jackall (1988). In the second section, I shall demonstrate the benefits of management as well as the negative outcomes associated with it to show that one can be critical of management wi thout necessarily being against it as the critical management studies do (Clegg, Kornberger, Carter & Rhodes, 2006; Edwards & Wajcman (2005); Mintzberg, 1971; Parker, 2002). In the third section, I shall demonstrate the role of being critical in own management and what it means to be critical. I shall then conclude with a brief summary. The Management concept has evolved over a long period of time prompted by changing nature of the economic systems from feudalism to capitalism and recently to a knowledge economy. According to Linstead et al (2009), work in traditional societies or feudal societies was done by hands; for

Report on Housing Prices Statistics in Oregon from a Sample of 108 Houses Essay Example for Free

Report on Housing Prices Statistics in Oregon from a Sample of 108 Houses Essay From the eleven variables identified, area of living space in the house (sq_ft), age of the house in years (age) and selling price of the house in thousand dollars (price) were identified to be in the ratio scale for the level of measurement while number of bedrooms (beds), number of bathrooms (baths) and number of spaces for cars in the garage (garage) were identified to be in the ordinal. Lastly, the variables architectural style (style), school district were the house is located (school), method of heating the house (heat), presence of fireplace (fire) and presence of basement (basement) were identified to be in the nominal scale. These levels of measurement were the basis on what type of tests were done for the different analyses (See Appendices for table 1). On all the tests and comparisons with p-values, a 95% level of confidence is used. Descriptive Statistics on the Variables With the results gathered, most of the houses use the gas forced air method of heating. Out of the 108 houses, 96. 3% use this method while only 3. 7 use the electric baseboard heating. Also, most houses are of ranch architecture. Of the 108 houses, 40. 7% are of this architectural style, 36. 1% are of the tri-level style while 23. 1% are of the two-story type. Moreover, 84. 3% of the houses have basements. Similarly, 88. 9 of them have fireplaces. Lastly, the largest part sampled houses are located in the Apple Valley School District. From the 108 houses, 60. 2 are located in this school district while the rest are in Eastville (See Appendices for tables 2, 3, 4, 5 6). For the ordinal variables, the median number of bedrooms in the house is four which means that fifty percent of the houses have less than four bedrooms while the rest have more than four bedrooms. Similarly, fifty percent of the houses have less than three bathrooms while the other fifty percent have more than three bathrooms. In the number of spaces for cars in the garage, fifty percent of the houses can accommodate no more than two cars while the other fifty percent can. From the sample, most of the houses have three bedrooms, three bathrooms and can accommodate two cars. Since these three variables are rank variables, the means for each cannot be computed (See Appendices for tables 8, 9, 10 11). For the ratio variables, it was found out that the mean selling price of the house in Oregon is 97. 99226 thousand dollars. With a relatively small standard error of 2. 543183, the statistic for the selling price is considered accurate. Fifty percent of the houses are priced below 92. 46950 thousand dollars while the other 50% have selling prices greater than 92. 46950 thousand dollars. Having a variance of 698. 520, the data from the sample are considered to be extremely dispersed. On the average, the selling price of a house in Oregon deviates by 26. 429529 thousand dollars from the mean selling price of the house generated from the sample. The mean area of living space in the house in square feet is 1745. 72. However, the standard error of the mean, which is 42. 836, is sufficiently large. The data values for this variable are the most dispersed among the three ratio variables having a variance of 198173. 39. Fifty percent of the samples houses have areas which are below 1758. 00 square feet while the other fifty have areas greater than 1758. 00 square feet. On the average, the area of living space in the house deviates by 445. 167 square feet from the mean. For the last ratio variable, the mean age of the house in years is 11. 23. Having a standard error of 0. 448 which is very small, this statistic is considered accurate. Fifty percent of the sampled houses are below 11 years of age while the rest are more than 11 years of age. The distribution of the variable is not that dispersed. With a variance of 21. 675, the age variable is the least dispersed among the three ratio variables. On the average, the ages of the houses deviates from the mean by 4. 656 years only (See Appendices for table 13). Summing up the descriptive measures obtained on the eleven variables, a typical home in Oregon has an area of 1745. 72 square feet, approximately 11 years of age, has four bedrooms, three bathrooms and can accommodate two car spaces in the garage. Furthermore, it is of ranch architecture and uses the gas forced air method of heating. It has a basement and a fireplace. It is located in the Apple Valley School District and its selling price is 97. 99226 thousand dollars. Correlation From the scatterplots, the selling price is identified to have a positive linear relationship with area of living and a negative, close to nonlinear relationship with age of the house (See Appendices for figures 12 13). Since the data do not follow the normal distribution Spearman’s rho was used to determine the correlation between the dependent variable, price, and the other ratio scale variables (See Appendices for table 24). With a correlation coefficient of 0. 828, there is a positive very strong linear relationship between the selling price and area of living space in the house. Moreover, even if there is a negative weak linear relationship between selling price and age of the house in years, both the correlations of selling price with area and age are significant with p-value equal to 0. 000 (See Appendices for tables 14 15). Also, though there is a negative weak linear relationship between the ratio variables age and area for the -0. 292 Pearson correlation coefficient, the 0. 000 p-value says that the correlation is significant. Pearson correlation was used for the two ratio variables because both are normally distributed (See Appendices for table 22). For the ordinal variables, all of them have a significant correlation with selling price with p-values 0. 007, 0. 000 and 0. 000 for number of bedrooms, number of bathrooms and number of car spaces in garage, respectively. The number of bedrooms in the house has a positive weak linear relationship with selling price having a correlation coefficient of 0. 259. Moreover, the number of bathrooms in the house has a positive strong linear relationship with selling price having a correlation coefficient of 0. 675. Also, the number of spaces for cars in the garage has a positive moderate linear relationship with selling price having a correlation coefficient of 0. 475 (See Appendices for table 16). Among the ordinal variables, the number of bedrooms and number of bathrooms, and the number of car spaces and number of bathrooms has a significant correlation, with p-values equal to 0. 000 and 0. 003 respectively, and has a positive weak linear relationship, with correlation coefficients of 0. 358 and 0. 283 respectively (See Appendices for table 23). Among the nominal variables, only the architectural style has a positive moderate association with selling price having an Eta coefficient of 0. 485 (See Appendices for table 18). The rest has either weak or very weak associations with selling price (See Appendices for tables 17, 19, 20 21). For the two categories of method of heating, it was found out that the use of gas forced air in the house, presence of basement and presence of fireplace increases the selling price of the house. The school district location also affects the selling price. Houses located in Apple Valley School District tend to have higher prices than that of Eastville School District. Moreover, there are no significant differences on the selling prices of houses with tri-level and two-story architectural style. However, houses that are of ranch architectural style tend to have higher selling prices than that of the tri-level and two-story architectural styles (See Appendices for tables 31, 33, 35, 37, 39, 41 43). Predictors of Selling Price Using the regression model, the selling price of a house, when all other factors are held constant, decreases by 16. 113. The interpretation for the intercept is significant since the confidence interval of the estimate includes zero. Holding other factors constant, the selling price is estimated to increase by 0. 042 thousand dollars for every square feet increase in the area of living space of the house. Also, there is an estimated increase of 3. 269 thousand dollars on the selling price for every unit increase in the number of bedrooms holding other factors constant. The selling price is estimated to increase by 13. 876 thousand dollars for every unit increase in the number of spaces for cars in the garage holding other factors constant. Similarly, an increase of 6. 953 and 4. 269 thousand dollars on selling price is estimated if there is a basement and a fireplace, respectively, in the house. The selling price is also estimated to increase by 4. 874 thousand dollars if the house is located in Apple Valley School District with other factors held constant. Furthermore, the selling price is estimated to increase by 11. 053 thousand dollars if the house is of ranch architectural style holding other factors constant. If the house is of a two-story type, there is an estimated increase of 1. 714 thousand dollars. If the architectural style is tri-level, then the value to be multiplied with the beta estimates for two-story and ranch will be equal to zero since the coded value for tri-level in the dummy variables is zero (See Appendices for table 44). With a Durbin-Watson statistic of 1. 746, then the residuals are independent. Having an adjusted R square of 0. 820, the variation in the selling price of the house can be explained by the eleven variables. A mean square error of 126. 070 implies that the sum of the squared deviations of the selling prices to the true value is relatively small. With a computed F statistic of 45. 169 and a corresponding p-value of 0. 000, then the regression adequately represent the data and can be useful for prediction (See Appendices for tables 45 46). To test, given the following data on a certain house: two-story house with 1600 square feet, 3 bedrooms, 2 baths, a one car garage, gas heat, a basement, no fireplace, is 9 years old, and is in the preferred school district, then the predicted selling price of the house is 60. 804 thousand dollars. Summary The larger the area sizes of the living space of the house, the more expensive the selling price. Also, more number of bedrooms and spaces for car in the garage would also increase the selling price. In terms of architectural style, the ranch type would increase the selling price of a house most than the other two styles. Finally, the house with a basement, a fireplace and which is located in the Apple Valley School District increases also the selling price.

A Scary Place in Louisiana Woods Essay Example for Free

A Scary Place in Louisiana Woods Essay More than five years ago, I went with a batch of friends to one of the villages in Louisiana.   Being born from the far-end south of the state of [your state], it was the first time I had a great view of the vast, green meadows of the plain.   It was springtime, and we were having fun going around the brooks and the woods that are really prevalent in those areas.   We were eight friends all in all, and we were to stay there for almost a week. It was fun and everyone just brought food and drinks and all that we can bring along to have a really wonderful time.   The place looked gorgeous†¦ except that we had no idea—or ‘I’ had no idea—that the woods would not really be that gorgeous at all.   I was somebody born to the city, and to go to places that are certainly silent did not bring anything to my mind but the thought that it would be the best spring I could have ever imagined!   I was wrong.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   The first three days in the cottage were really pleasant.   Our group went to and fro the green oaks there, and I got tired counting all the oak trees that were positioned so neatly along the roadside.   The pines were more difficult to count, I thought.   It was one of the many times I walked to the winding path amid the grass and the trees.   I didn’t know why but I just loved the feeling nature has brought in to me; yet it was not so hot because trees usually blocked the sunlight, and there was a sway of some wind, as proven by the branches. To my left was a swooping valley of green grass, and to my right there was nothing I saw but three things: trees, trees, and trees!   I enjoyed the feeling of not being alone but then wondered, was I alone?   I felt that I was not.   I called out to my friends: no response.   God forbid but I left my cellphone on the chair just before I went out for a walk.   I thought Billy was with me but now I can’t see or hear anyone, and I guess I’ve been walking for more than an hour already.   I stopped walking.   If I’d been walking for, let’s say, two hours, then it could be nearly six o’clock, which is why the woods have, indeed, become dimmer and a bit misty. Well, where was I?   I can see the brook northward, the pine valley far eastward, big oak trees westward, and just piles of grass southward.   I heard something moving between the branches somewhere in the far-side end of the brook.   Looking at the big oak tree stapled like a tower behind the brook, what did not enter clearly to my head entered clearly to my eyes: the picture of a handful of fire glaring fiercely red and floating mysteriously in the air just in front of that oak!   And it was moving so slowly to my direction, making me step back relentlessly to thump with a sudden jump southward to where I just came from. A big black dog greeted me at my back, and what was really terrifying was that it had the eyes of man—the expression, the look†¦ was that of a man.   I whispered a silent prayer and ran as fast as I can.   Never would I roam around an unfamiliar site of woods with no one but me to rely on in facing my adversary and my fear.   I felt angry that my friends have left me alone when they knew I was new to this place.   Thank God that black dog did not run after me but just stared at me right at my face.   I could’ve fainted if it had run after me to my grave†¦ What the incident taught me about fear is that, at a time of fear, there really is no one to stand for me or with me but myself.   I perceived fear when I realized that I was alone in an unknown place, with no one to hear me even if I shouted for help.   I perceived fear when I saw things (i.e., floating fire) that are not the usual things I saw in my everyday life: things that are truly mysterious, strange, and unexplainable. I perceived fear when I imagined things that could have happened, such as what I imagined the black dog could have done.   Fear sprouts at times when we encounter strange things that stir strange sensation amid a strange environment.   I feared that the perceived fear would enkindle worse things and events that I remembered only seeing in the television.   I feared that what I perceived as fear would turn into something more than mere fear.   I perceived fear†¦ and it was right to my own eyes!

Use Of Karyotype Analysis In Genetic Counseling Biology Essay

Use Of Karyotype Analysis In Genetic Counseling Biology Essay Complete set of metaphase chromosome is called karyotype. It is widely used to detect the chromosomal abnormalities that are related to the genetic diseases and various type of cancer. As the biomedical science advances, various kinds of techniques are used to analyze the human karyotype. These karyotype analysis are widely used in genetic counseling to minimize the risk of having unfortunate. By doing so, individual and families are realized to implement the genetic testing. In genetic counseling, knowledge of karyotype analysis is greatly determined the inheritable diseases including cancer. Moreover, Pedigree construction based on Mendelian principles is used in old days to know the pattern of inheritance. In recent year, FISH (fluorescence in situ hybridization), PCR (polymerase chain reaction), CGH (comparative genomic hybridization) and SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) arrays are developed for the promising future of human genetics. Among them FISH is the most currently diagnostic tool for the various chromosomal aberrations that can be visible in karyotype analysis. The most tested chromosomes are 13, 18, 21, 22, X and Y that account for 85% of chromosomal abnormalities (Rodrigo et al., 2010). But now, genetic scientists have been carried out the approaches towards all chromosome analysis. On the other hand, the high risk society is greatly interested to do pre pregnancy counseling to reduce the inheriting defective gene for the next generation . Therefore, use of karyotype analysis is more and more improved in genetic counseling for the screening and diagnosis as well as the treatment and prevention. Karyotyping Karyotype construction and analysis is the powerful diagnostic method to identify the chromosomal studies in human genetic. Karyotyping is usually done at the metaphase of cell cycle in which the chromosome structure is the most condensed. Therefore, it is also known as complete set of metaphase chromosome (Nie et al., 1998). There are 46 chromosomes in human (22 autosomes and sex chromosomes). Karyotype show the number of chromosomes, the sex chromosome content, the presence or absence of individual chromosomes and the nature and extent of any structural abnormalities. Karyotyping can be accessed under a microscope to examine the number and structural variants which must be size of 3 Mb or more. Only DNA sequencing can be observed smaller alterations (Klein and Tibboel, 2010). Chromosomes in human karyotype are categorized into seven depend on their bands after staining procedure. Each group is arranged into A to G defined by size and centromere position. These banding patterns help to identify specific defect regions on the chromosome. Thus, the any defect in chromosome region can be described as an accurate address. For example; 1q2.4 defines as chromosome number 1, q arm, region 2 and the banding 4 (Trask, 2002). Method For karyotype construction, the specimen can be taken from the white blood cell, skin cells, amniotic fluid cells and the chorionic villus cells. Then the cells are prepared to enter the mitosis and arrested in the stage of metaphase. Moreover, these preparations are treated with trypsin and staining to get the banding pattern. After that, video camera attached microscope directly send the images to the computer to generate the karyotypes (Yang et al., 2000). Generally, it could be used to determine if chromosome of an adult have abnormality or defect that can be passed on to a child. The origin of complex chromosomal defect is identified by using standard G-band procedures, fluorescent staining and fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) and comparative genomic hybridization (CGH). FISH is a recent technology to detect the specific chromosome structure by using particular DNA probes. This method is more accurate and enables to see the micro-deletion and exact break point involved in each chromosome (Ligon et al., 2997). Doing the karyotype analysis is benefit in pregnant women at the age of 35 and having the history of previous child with defect. Because of the risk of chromosome abnormalities dramatically increased in advanced maternal age and if the mother is an X-linked carrier, the recurrent risk is 1 to 2%. Therefore, antenatal screening tests including karyotyping are carried out to a defined population who are at risk of having a specific condition. Different tests are done in different stages of pregnancy. Chorionic villus sampling is offered at 11-12 weeks of pregnancy, Amniocentesis is done at 16 weeks and fetal blood sampling is carried out at 18-22 weeks of pregnancy. Although these all procedures are having risk of miscarriage, they are suitable for the chromosomal and DNA analysis (Callen et al., 1988). Especially, for the detecting of trisomies in chromosome 13, 18, 21, X and Y which account for more than 85% of all fetal aneuploidies. As a benefit, if a couple with a known risk to offspring, they can choose options to avoid or plan further pregnancy. If the male partner is affected, the couple has option for artificial insemination of sperm from a donor. If the female is affected with a dominant condition or X-linked carrier, the couple has option for egg donation from another female. Moreover, the relatively new procedure is pre-implantation genetic diagnosis. Initially, this process requires in vitro fertilization. If the fertilization occurred, one cell is removed from the stage of blastocyst and then investigated for the chromosomal disorder. If there is no defect, it will be returned to the uterus (Fukuda et al., 2007). In the molecular genetics, DNA testing is divided into four main categories which are diagnostic testing, carrier detection, pre symptomatic testing for adult onset diseases and prenatal diagnosis. In the genetic counseling, karyotype analysis is widely used in carrier detection incase of balanced translocation carrier, autosomal dominant recessive, X-linked female carrier disorder in order to evaluate the risk of having an affected child. Furthermore, karyotyping can be used as a pre symptomatic or predictive test in some individual who are at risk of an adult onset disorder to determine whether or not they carry the mutated gene for these disorders. This test is value for autosomal dominant condition because of having a chance is 50% if one parent is affected. For example, familial adenomatous polyposis, colon cancer, Huntington disease (Bodmer et al., 1991). Chromosomal aberrations Abnormalities of the chromosomes, these are large enough to be visible under the light microscope are termed chromosomal aberrations. They are usually classified into numerical abnormalities and structural abnormalities. Numerical aberration is the disordered of chromosome due to error in separation of chromosome in cell division. Aneuploidy represents gain or loss of a specific whole chromosome due to failure of paired chromosome in meiosis. The one with extra copy of chromosome is called trisomy and the one with missing copy of that chromosome is called monosomy. These can be seen either autosome or sex chromosome. Autosomal trisomy will result in early miscarriage and monosomy of an autosomal chromosome is not compactable with life. Autosomal trisomy is associated with increased maternal age (Harper et al., 1995). Similarly, polyploidy represents a complete extra set of chromosomes due to fertilization by two sperms (dispermy) or failure in maturation divisions of either the eggs or the sperm. For examples, triploidy and tetraploidy depending on the number of extra sets of chromosomes. Triplody occurs in 2% of all conception but early spontaneous abortion is usual (Munne and Cohen, 1998). The most commonly seen autosomal aneuploidies are trisomy 21-Downs syndrome (47, XX, +21 or 47, XY, +21), trisomy 18-Edwards syndrome (47, XX, +18 or 47, XY, +18), trisomy 13-Pataus syndrome (47, XX, +13 OR 47, XY, +13). Sex chromosomal aneuploidies are Klinefelter syndrome (47, XXY), XYY syndrome (47, XYY), Triple X syndrome (47, XXX) and Turner syndrome (45, X). Autosomal monosomy is mostly lethal and autosomal trisomy is relatively more common (Rodrigo et al., 2010). The commonest autosomal trisomies are Downs syndrome, Patau syndrome and Edwards syndrome. The kayotype of Downs syndrome is 47, +21, an extra copy of chromosome 21. It occurs in 1 in 900 live births and leading cause of childhood mental retardation and heart defect (Wald et al., 1997). Patau syndrome is usually found at the time of doing cytogenetic analysis in malformed children. It also revealed extra chromosome at chromosome number 13 (47, +13) (Rasmussen et al., 2003). Another trisomy is the Edwards syndrome (47, +18). It accounts for a frequency of 1 in 11,000 live births (Massiah et al., 2008). Aneuploidy of the sex chromosome Aneuploidy of the sex chromosomes is more common than the autosomal aneupolidy but have less impact. Unlike the autosome, monosomy for Y chromosome is always lethal whereas monosomy for the X chromosome is a viable condition. The commonest syndromes that have ever seen in clinical setting are Turner syndrome, Klinefelter syndrome, Triple X syndrome and XYY syndrome (Smith et al., 1960). Monosomy of X chromosome results in 45, X karyotype due to non-disjunction in either parent. It is estimated that 1% of all conception from which 95 to 99% of all 45, X embryos die before birth. They have significant defect in height, sexual development and fertility but there is no mental retardation (David et al., 1986). The karyotype of Klinefelter syndrome is 47, XXY. The extra X chromosome of maternal origin is 56% and paternal is 44%. It is usually arise from non-disjunction at either the first or second meiotic division (Lamb et al., 1996). For example, if the father produces XY sperm that is cross over with maternal X ovum to produce XXY. This is the single commonest cause of hypogonadism and infertility in male. Overall the birth incidence of 47, XXY is 1 in 1000 male with an increased risk at maternal age and azoospermatic infertile males (Steinberger et al., 1965). And the karyotype of super female syndrome is 47, XXX which also known as triple X syndrome. It is usually appears as clinically normal but 15- 25% are mildly mentally handicapped. About three quarter of the affected females is fertile of which one- half of their offspring would expect to have this syndrome (Michalak et al., 1983). Furthermore, another karyotype defect associated with personality disorder is 47, XYY syndrome. It is firstly noted in 1965 cytogenetic survey in male for violent and dangerous antisocial behavior and about 4.5% of the males in this survey were shown as XYY karyotype. The frequency of having this characteristic karyotype in general population is 1 in 1000 birth according to the sub sequent studies. The recurrence risk for the offspring would be 2XXY : 2XY : 1XX : 1XYY due to production of YY sperm at the second meiotic division or post-fertilization non-disjunction of the Y (Staessen et al., 2003). Structural aberration is the disordered in the structure and shape of the chromosome resulting from chromosomal breakage and error in rejoin mechanisms. Translocation is the transfer of chromosomal material between non-homologous chromosomes but there is no DNA loss. Three recognizable translocations are reciprocal, centric fusion (Robertsonian) and insertion. The one important thing in translocation is the balanced reciprocal translocation which occurs in two non-homologus chromosomes (Michael and Malcolm, 1997). In normal population, 1 in 500 are known balanced carrier and they are clinically healthy but they can give a problem when they reproduce. It is possible for the balanced translocation carrier to pass on the translocation in unbalanced form that can lead to miscarriage and physical or developmental problem (Munne et al., 2000). Deletion is the loss of a part of chromosome that can cause phenotypic effect because of the loss of gene. For a deletion to be seen in karyotype analysis, the amount of deletion must be large. It may also occur as a result of an unbalanced translocation (Barber, 2005). Although deletion of a small piece of chromosome is not a serious problem, deletion of entire chromosome is lethal. Therefore, only a few viable conditions are found in large deletion. These are the listed below; Adapted from Human Heredity Principles and Issues, seventh edition, 2006 Region of deletion Related disease 5p- Cri du chat syndrome 11q- Wilms tumour 13q- Retionblastoma 15q- (maternal uniparental disomy) Prader- Wills syndrome 15q- (paternal uniparental disomy) Angelman syndrome Cri du chat syndrome is caused by deletion in short arm of chromosome 5 and incidence is 1 in 100,000 births (Cerruti, 2001). A characteristic feature of the affected child is having a sound of cat like cry (Niebuhr, 1978). The phenotype is slightly different depend on their chromosome break point. There are two regions of break point in the short arm of chromosome 5 have been identified in this syndrome. Loss of chromosome segment in 5p15.3 results in abnormal larynx development and deletion in 5p15.2 is associated with mental retardation (Overhauser et al., 1994; Simmons et al., 1995). Prader-Willi syndrome and Angleman syndrome are caused by deletion in region 15q11-13 or by uniparental disomy (Ledbetter, 1981). If both copies of chromosome are inherited from the father, the child will have Angelman and from the mother, the child will have Prader-Willi syndrome (Horsthemke, 1996). The incidence of Prader-Willi is 1 in 10, 000 whereas Angelman is 1 in 20, 000 live birth (Clayton-Smith, 1993; Petersen et al., 1995). Characteristic feature of Prader Willi syndrome is sleepiness and Angelman is bouts of laughter (Zori et al., 1992). These cytogenetic microdeletions in the long arm of chromosome 15 can be visible by using either FISH (fluoresce in situ hybridization) or DNA analysis with probes from the deleted region (Nicholls, 1994). The others structural abnormalities include duplication, inversion and mosiacism and the rare structural variants are fragile site, heteromorphisims, isochromosome and ring chromosome. Cancer genetics Some of the cancer can be detected by karyotype analysis. The connection between chromosome rearrangement and cancer is evident in leukemia. The specific chromosome translocation between chromosome 9 and 22 is called the Philadelphia chromosome. That can be used as well defined diagnostic tool and prognostic factor. Moreover, this specific translocation is associated with other forms of cancer including Burkitts lymphoma and multiple myeloma. Chromosome translocation associated with haematological cancers Translocation site Type of cancer t(9;22) Chronic myeloid leukemia (Rajasekariah et al., 1982) t(8;14), t(8;22), t(2;8) Burkitts lymphoma (Margrath, 1990) t(8;21) acute myeloblastic leukemia (Oshimura et al., 1976) t(4;18) follicular lymphoma (Fleischman and Prigogina, 1977) t(4;18) acute lymphocytic leukemia (Oshimura et al., 1977) The proportion of leukemia with a heritable component has been estimated as 25% in monozygotic twin. Risk to sibs in childhood leukemia is 2- 4 times higher than the population incidence. The risk of a relative developing Hodgkins disease is seven fold higher than other (Kelly, 1992). Genetic counseling Genetic counseling should be offered to both parents and must give adequate time under appropriate setting. Depth of explanation should be matched to education background of the couples, outlining of clinical features, complication, natural history, prognosis and effective management (Frets et al., 1991). Simple Explanation of the genetic basic of the condition with the aids of diagram and recurrent risk calculation should be carried out (Sermon, 2002). Furthermore, genetic counselor can give the suggestion to reduce the risk of having disorder. The options are no further pregnancy, adoption, in vitro fertilization with pre implantation diagnosis, artificial insemination-AID by donor (egg donation), termination pregnancy, OR ignore and accept the risk (Zare et al., 1973). AID is performed for husband with AD trait or both are carrier for a serious AR (Taranissi, 2005). The important thing in genetic counseling must be non- judgemental and non-directive. The aim is to deliver a balanced version of the facts which will permit the consultants to reach their own decision with regard to their reproductive future. In UK, congenital disabilities act of 1976 legal action can be brought against a person whose breach of duty to parents results in a child being born disabled, abnormal or unhealthy. Prenatal diagnosis with selective termination of pregnancy became a reality in UK with the abortion ACT OF 1967 (Macintyre, 1973). AD trait is the risk to each child of an affected person is 1 in 2. Disorder has high penetrance, most dominant trait shows variable expression. AR trait for the carrier parents, the risk recurrence risk is 1 in 4 diseases, 2 in 3 chance of being carrier (Yoshikawa and Mukai, 1970). In X-linked recessive trait, if females are obligate carrier, one half of her sons will be affected and one half of her daughter will be carrier. If affected male reproduce, there will be normal sons and carrier daughters. Nowadays, biochemical tests may be available for carrier detection, but because of X inactivation few of these are absolute and this information needs to be combined with the pedigree risk using Bayes theorem (Markova et al., 1984). Conditions need for genetic counseling and investigation (Watson et al., 1992) 1. Infertility one in ten of all couples are involuntarily infertile, such a couple need chromosomal analysis to exclude a balanced structural rearrangement and Klinefelter syndrome. 2. Recurrence miscarriage one of six pregnancy ends as a spontaneous miscarriage. 3-5% of cases have a balanced structural rearrangement 3. Still birth 4. Perinatal death with multiple malformations Conclusion The benefit of karyotype analysis in high risk population provides the prevention and early management options to minimize the risk. As the genetic science development, researchers and clinician have more advanced diagnostic tool like multiplex PCR, SNP microarray, CGH (comparative genomic hybridization) to identify the far more complex chromosome abnormalities. Although karyotyping by FISH can detect both balanced and unbalanced translocation, uniparental disomy can only be detected by SNP arrays and high output sequencing. Despite the high cost, enormous benefit can be found for the society to evaluate the superior treatment protocols and genomic technologies for the future.

The Causes of the American Civil War :: American History

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The American Civil War, also known as the War Between the States, the War of Rebellion, or the War for the Southern Independence, began on April 12, 1861. The first shot ringed through the air in Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor, South Carolina. General P.G.T. Beauregard from the Congederacy lead the attack on Charleston Harbor. The Civil War lasted until the last Confederate Army surrendered with more than 600,000 lives destroyed $5 billion in property damage and 4 million black salves set free the war had devastated many lives but also started a new beginning.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The cause of this brutal war between one nation; slavery. The Southern states including the 11 states that formed the Confederacy all relied on slavery to support their economy, while we, the Northern states, opposed it. Southern states used slave labor to produce crops, especially cotton. Slavery up here was outlawed, although few of us opposed it.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After we had just defeated Mexico in the mexican War (1846-1848), the main debate on the eve of the war was whether or not we should permit slaver in those states won in the Mexican war. Those states included New Mexico, part of California and Utah.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The Government tried to make this dispute fair by makin the number of non- slave sates and slave states equal, so that their would be no majorities in the senate. Those against slavery were concerned that the expansion of the states won from Mexico because the did not want to compete against slave labor. During the beginning of the war the Union had 19 non-slave states and the Confederacy had 15 slave states. President Lincoln called the nation " A House Divided.

Chemical Transport During Surface Irrigation :: Agriculture Farming Papers

Chemical Transport During Surface Irrigation Surface irrigation, the most prominent method used for irrigating agricultural crops, is the flowing of water across the field surface. As the water flows, it infiltrates into the soil. The amount of water applied to the field is regulated by the length of time that the water is allowed to flow. Surface irrigation can be subdivided into following four types based the amount of water flow control; wild flooding, graded boarders, level boarders and furrow irrigation. Wild flooding uses a series of field ditches running parallel or perpendicular to the fields' contour. Water is introduced into the field either be overflowing the ditches or by siphon. Once the water enters the field, the water is allowed to flow uncontrolled under the force of gravity. The water then infiltrates the soil as it moves across the field. The graded boarder method is similar to wild flooding except that the field is divided into a series of smaller narrower fields varying from 10 to 20 meters wide and 100 to 400 meters long. Each of these smaller fields is surrounded by a low ridge that keeps the water from spreading to much laterally. This method gives some control over the flow of water. Level boarder irrigation is similar to the graded boarder method except that the field is leveled within the low ridges surrounding it. Water can be introduced into the field at a faster rate so the field is covered much quicker. The water is then allowed to infiltrate into the soil. Furrow irrigation chanalizes the water into narrow furrows running the length of the field perpendicular to the contour of the field. This submerges only about one fifth of the soil surface. As the water flows down the furrow it infiltrates into the soil below and to the sides of the furrow. All four of these methods result in excess water being applied to the field to ensure that the far ends of the field are adequately watered. This means that there will be water running off the field on the downhill side of the field. A ditch is run along the side of the field to collect this water and remove it from the field. This excess water is of concern from a water quality standpoint. Almost all crops grown in the united states are done so under intense fertilization and pest control programs that result in large amounts of fertilizers and pesticides being applied to the soil and crop itself.